## Wine Tasting: The Systematic Approach to Tasting (SAT)

The WSET SAT provides a structured way to assess wine. It covers four stages:

• Appearance: Observe clarity (clear/hazy), intensity (pale, medium, deep), and colour (e.g., white: lemon, gold; red: ruby, garnet; rosé: pink, salmon). Legs/tears can indicate alcohol or sweetness.
• Nose: Assess intensity (light, medium, pronounced) and aroma characteristics. These are categorised as primary (fruit, floral, herbal, spice from grape/fermentation), secondary (yeast/oak notes from winemaking), and tertiary (bottle age notes like dried fruit, mushroom, leather).
• Palate: Evaluate sweetness (dry, off-dry, medium, sweet), acidity (low, medium, high), tannin (low, medium, high – for red wines), alcohol (low, medium, high), body (light, medium, full), flavour intensity, and flavour characteristics (similar to nose). The finish (length of pleasant sensations after swallowing) is also key.
• Conclusion: Summarise the wine's quality (faulty, poor, acceptable, good, very good, outstanding) and readiness for drinking.

## Food Pairing Principles

Successful food and wine pairing balances their characteristics. Key considerations:

• Intensity Matching: Match the weight/intensity of the food with the wine (e.g., light food with light wine).
• Acidity: High acidity in wine cuts through richness, balances fatty/oily foods, and refreshes the palate.
• Sweetness: Wine must be sweeter than the food; otherwise, the wine will taste bitter, sour, or less fruity.
• Tannin: High tannin in red wine pairs well with protein-rich foods (e.g., red meat), which soften the tannins. Avoid with bitter or very salty foods.
• Salt: Salt in food enhances fruitiness, softens tannin, and reduces acidity in wine.
• Umami: High umami in food can make wine taste harder, more bitter, and less fruity. Avoid high tannin or heavily oaked wines.
• Chilli Heat: Avoid high alcohol and high tannin. Pair with low alcohol, fruity, off-dry or sweet wines.

## Wine Service & Storage

• Serving Temperatures:
• Well Chilled (6-8°C / 43-46°F): Sweet wines, sparkling wines.
• Chilled (7-10°C / 45-50°F): Light-bodied white, rosé.
• Lightly Chilled (10-13°C / 50-55°F): Medium/full-bodied white, light-bodied red.
• Room Temperature (15-18°C / 59-64°F): Medium/full-bodied red (note: 'room temperature' is often too warm).
• Storage: Store wine in a cool, dark place with a constant temperature, away from vibrations. Bottles with corks should be stored on their side to keep the cork moist.
• Glassware: Use clean, appropriate-sized glasses for the wine type.
• Decanting: Used to remove sediment from older wines or to aerate (allow oxygen exposure) young, tannic wines.

## Factors Influencing Wine Style and Quality

Wine style and quality are shaped by a complex interplay of natural and human factors, broadly categorized into grape growing (viticulture) and winemaking (vinification).

## Grape Growing (Viticulture)

The vineyard environment is crucial.

• Location:
• Climate: The most significant factor. Cool climates (e.g., Champagne) lead to wines with high acidity, lower alcohol, and delicate fruit. Moderate climates (e.g., Bordeaux) produce balanced wines. Warm climates (e.g., Barossa Valley) result in wines with lower acidity, higher alcohol, and full-bodied, ripe fruit flavours.
• Weather: Annual variations (e.g., frost, hail, excessive rain) create vintage variation, impacting quality and style year to year.
• Latitude, Altitude, Ocean Currents, Fog, Aspect: These all influence the amount of heat and sunlight a vine receives, affecting grape ripeness.
• Diurnal Range: The difference between daytime and nighttime temperatures. A large diurnal range helps grapes retain acidity while developing complex aromas.
• Soil: Influences water drainage, nutrient availability, and temperature regulation, affecting vine vigour and grape composition.
• Grape Variety: Each variety has inherent characteristics: skin thickness (affecting tannin and colour), acidity levels, and aromatic profiles. For example, Pinot Noir is thin-skinned and low in tannin, while Cabernet Sauvignon is thick-skinned and high in tannin.
• Vineyard Management: Human decisions significantly impact quality.
• Yield: Controlling the number of grapes per vine. Lower yields often concentrate flavours, leading to higher quality.
• Pruning & Training: Shapes the vine, managing growth and sunlight exposure.
• Pest & Disease Control: Protects the crop.
• Harvest: Timing is critical for ripeness (sugar, acid, tannin balance) and flavour development. Hand harvesting is generally gentler than machine harvesting.

## Winemaking (Vinification)

Once grapes are harvested, winemaking techniques further define the wine.

• Crushing & Pressing: Gentle pressing avoids extracting harsh tannins.
• Fermentation: Yeast converts sugar to alcohol.
• Temperature Control: Cool fermentation preserves delicate fruit aromas; warm fermentation extracts more colour and tannin.
• Vessels: Stainless steel preserves primary fruit; oak barrels add flavour (vanilla, toast), soften tannins, and allow controlled oxygen exposure.
• Malolactic Fermentation (MLF): Converts tart malic acid to softer lactic acid, often adding buttery notes and complexity.
• Maturation/Aging:
• Oak: Type (French, American), size, age, and toast level impart different flavours and textures. New, small, heavily toasted oak has the most impact.
• Lees Contact: Dead yeast cells can add complexity, texture, and bready notes (e.g., brioche in Champagne).
• Oxygen Exposure: Controlled exposure (e.g., through oak) can soften tannins and develop complex aromas; excessive exposure leads to oxidation.
• Blending: Combining different grape varieties, vineyards, or vintages to achieve a desired style and complexity.
• Fining & Filtration: Clarifies and stabilises wine, though excessive treatment can strip flavour.

## Maturation Potential

Some wines benefit from aging, developing tertiary aromas (e.g., dried fruit, leather, mushroom). Key components for aging potential are high tannin, acidity, sugar, and/or alcohol.

## Principal White Grape Varieties

Understanding the principal white grape varieties is fundamental to WSET Level 2. These grapes offer a diverse range of styles, heavily influenced by climate, winemaking techniques, and regional traditions.

Chardonnay

Chardonnay is the most widely planted white grape, renowned for its versatility. Its flavour profile is highly dependent on climate and winemaking. In cool climates (e.g., Chablis), it yields wines with high acidity and green fruit (apple, pear) and citrus notes. Moderate climates (e.g., Burgundy) bring stone fruit (peach) and tropical fruit (melon) hints. Hot climates (e.g., California, Australia) produce full-bodied wines with pronounced tropical fruit (banana, pineapple) flavours. Winemaking techniques include malolactic fermentation (MLF) for buttery, creamy notes, lees contact for bread/biscuit complexity, and oak ageing for vanilla, toast, and spice.

Sauvignon Blanc

Sauvignon Blanc is an aromatic grape known for its high acidity. It typically displays green fruit (gooseberry, lime), herbaceous (grass, bell pepper, asparagus), and sometimes passionfruit aromas. Cooler climates (e.g., Loire Valley - Sancerre, Pouilly-Fumé) emphasize the green and herbaceous notes. Moderate climates (e.g., Marlborough, New Zealand) often show more pronounced tropical fruit alongside the herbaceous character. It is rarely oaked, preserving its fresh, zesty character.

Riesling

Riesling is another highly aromatic grape, capable of producing wines from bone-dry to lusciously sweet, always with high acidity. Its flavour profile includes floral (blossom), green fruit (green apple, grape), and citrus (lemon, lime). With age, Riesling can develop distinctive petrol or toast notes. Key regions include Germany (Mosel, Rheingau), Alsace (France), and Clare/Eden Valleys (Australia). Sweet styles often benefit from botrytis (noble rot).

Pinot Grigio / Pinot Gris

This grape has two main styles. Pinot Grigio (Italy) is typically light-bodied, high in acidity, and unoaked, with simple green fruit (apple, pear) and citrus flavours, often with a hint of almond. Pinot Gris (Alsace, France; Oregon, USA) produces fuller-bodied, more aromatic wines, often with lower acidity, notes of stone fruit (peach), tropical fruit (mango), honey, and sometimes a spicy complexity, often with some oak influence.

Chenin Blanc

Chenin Blanc is a versatile grape with naturally high acidity, allowing it to be made in dry, off-dry, sweet, and sparkling styles. Flavours range from green apple and citrus in dry styles to stone fruit (apricot), honey, and lanolin with age or in sweeter styles. It is particularly important in the Loire Valley (Vouvray, Savennières) and South Africa, where it is often called Steen. Sweet wines can be made using botrytis.

Viognier

Viognier is a full-bodied, aromatic grape with typically low to medium acidity. It is known for its intense floral (blossom) aromas, stone fruit (apricot, peach), and sometimes a distinctive spicy character. It is often oaked, adding richness and complexity. The Northern Rhône Valley (Condrieu) is its spiritual home, where it produces highly prized, often expensive, wines.

## Principal Black Grape Varieties

Understanding the principal black grape varieties is crucial for the WSET Level 2 exam. Each grape has distinct characteristics influenced by its genetic makeup and the environment in which it's grown. These characteristics include skin thickness, acidity, tannin levels, and typical aroma/flavour profiles.

Cabernet Sauvignon

Known for its thick skin, high levels of tannin and acidity, and strong colour. It ripens late and thrives in moderate to hot climates. Key aromas include blackcurrant, black cherry, and herbal notes (e.g., mint, bell pepper). With oak ageing, it develops notes of cedar, tobacco, and vanilla. It's the backbone of many Bordeaux (Left Bank) blends, and prominent in Napa Valley, Coonawarra, and Maipo Valley.

Merlot

Often blended with Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot is generally softer with medium tannin and acidity. It ripens earlier and prefers cooler sites within moderate climates. Aromas range from red fruit (plum, raspberry) in cooler climates to black fruit (blackberry, black plum) in warmer ones. Oak ageing can add chocolate and spice notes. It's the dominant grape in Bordeaux (Right Bank) and widely planted in California, Chile, and Australia.

Pinot Noir

This grape is characterized by its thin skin, resulting in low to medium tannin and a light to medium body. It has naturally high acidity. Pinot Noir is notoriously difficult to grow, preferring cool to moderate climates. Classic aromas include red cherry, raspberry, and strawberry, evolving into earthy notes like mushroom and forest floor with age. Oak can impart subtle spice. It's the star of Burgundy, and also excels in Oregon, New Zealand (Marlborough, Central Otago), and Germany (Spätburgunder).

Syrah / Shiraz

This variety produces wines with medium to thick skin, high tannin, and medium to high acidity, typically full-bodied. In the Northern Rhône (Syrah), it yields wines with black fruit, black pepper, and often savoury, gamey notes. In Australia (Shiraz), particularly warmer regions like Barossa Valley, it produces full-bodied wines with intense black fruit, sweet spice, and often chocolate or coffee notes from oak. Other key regions include Washington State and South Africa.

Grenache / Garnacha

Grenache has thin skin, low to medium tannin, and naturally high sugar levels, leading to high alcohol. It thrives in hot, dry climates. Primary aromas are red fruit (strawberry, raspberry), often with notes of white pepper and kirsch. It's a key component of Southern Rhône blends (e.g., Châteauneuf-du-Pape, often with Syrah and Mourvèdre), and widely grown in Spain (Garnacha) and Australia.

Zinfandel / Primitivo

Known for its ability to produce high sugar levels, resulting in full-bodied, high-alcohol wines. It has medium tannin and high acidity. Aromas include black fruit (blackberry, black plum), red fruit (raspberry), and spice (pepper, clove), often with a jammy or dried fruit character. It's a signature grape of California (Zinfandel) and is known as Primitivo in Puglia, Italy. It can also be used to make rosé (White Zinfandel).

## Key Wine-Producing Regions of the World

France

• Bordeaux: A classic region for blends. The Left Bank (Médoc, Graves) focuses on Cabernet Sauvignon with Merlot, producing structured, age-worthy reds. The Right Bank (Saint-Émilion, Pomerol) emphasizes Merlot with Cabernet Franc, yielding softer, fruitier reds. White Bordeaux uses Sauvignon Blanc and Sémillon. Sweet wines come from Sauternes.
• Burgundy: Known for single varietal wines. Pinot Noir is the red grape, and Chardonnay is the white grape. Key sub-regions include Chablis (unoaked Chardonnay), Côte d'Or (premium Pinot Noir and Chardonnay), and Mâconnais (Chardonnay).
• Champagne: World-renowned sparkling wine made by the traditional method from Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Pinot Meunier.
• Loire Valley: Diverse styles. Sauvignon Blanc (Sancerre, Pouilly-Fumé) for dry whites. Chenin Blanc (Vouvray, Savennières) for dry, off-dry, sweet, and sparkling whites. Cabernet Franc (Chinon, Bourgueil) for red wines.
• Alsace: Primarily aromatic white wines, often bottled in tall 'flûte' bottles. Key grapes are Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Pinot Gris, and Pinot Blanc.
• Rhône Valley: Northern Rhône: Syrah (reds like Hermitage, Crozes-Hermitage) and Viognier (whites like Condrieu). Southern Rhône: Grenache-based blends (e.g., Châteauneuf-du-Pape) are dominant.

Italy

• Piedmont: Nebbiolo (Barolo, Barbaresco), Barbera, Dolcetto. Sparkling Moscato d'Asti and Asti.
• Veneto: Prosecco (Glera grape), Soave (Garganega), Valpolicella (Corvina blends).
• Tuscany: Sangiovese is king (Chianti, Brunello di Montalcino).

Spain

• Rioja: Famous for Tempranillo-based reds, often oak-aged (Crianza, Reserva, Gran Reserva).
• Ribera del Duero: High-quality Tempranillo (Tinto Fino).
• Penedès: Home of Cava, a traditional method sparkling wine (Macabeo, Parellada, Xarel-lo).
• Rías Baixas: Albariño (aromatic white).

Germany

• Mosel, Rheingau, Pfalz: Predominantly Riesling, known for high acidity and varying sweetness levels (dry to sweet).

New World Regions

• USA (California): Diverse. Key grapes: Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Zinfandel. Napa Valley, Sonoma County are premium areas.
• Australia: Shiraz (Syrah) and Chardonnay are dominant. Key regions: Barossa Valley, McLaren Vale (Shiraz), Coonawarra (Cabernet Sauvignon).
• New Zealand: Marlborough is world-renowned for intense Sauvignon Blanc. Pinot Noir is important in Central Otago.
• Chile (Central Valley): Value and quality. Key grapes: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Carmenère, Sauvignon Blanc.
• Argentina (Mendoza): Signature grape is Malbec, producing rich, dark-fruited reds.
• South Africa (Western Cape): Chenin Blanc (Steen), Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and indigenous Pinotage. Stellenbosch, Paarl are key areas.

## Sparkling Wines

Sparkling wines are characterized by dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) gas, which creates bubbles upon opening. This CO2 is typically a by-product of a second fermentation.

## Methods of Production

• Traditional Method: This is the highest quality and most complex method.
• A still base wine is made.
• A mixture of wine, sugar, and yeast (liqueur de tirage) is added to the bottle, which is then sealed.
• A second fermentation occurs in the bottle, producing CO2 and alcohol. The yeast cells die, forming lees.
• Autolysis: The breakdown of these dead yeast cells over time (lees aging) imparts complex aromas of biscuit, bread, and toast.
• Riddling: Bottles are gradually tilted and rotated to collect the lees in the neck.
• Disgorgement: The neck of the bottle is frozen, and the frozen plug of lees is ejected.
• Dosage (Liqueur d'expédition): A mixture of wine and sugar is added to top up the bottle and determine the final sweetness level.
• Examples: Champagne, Cava, Crémant, high-quality New World sparkling wines.

• Tank Method (Charmat Method):
• A still base wine undergoes a second fermentation in a sealed, pressurized tank.
• The CO2 is trapped in the tank, dissolving into the wine.
• The wine is then filtered and bottled under pressure.
• This method preserves fresh, fruity aromas.
• Examples: Prosecco.

• Asti Method (Single Fermentation):
• Only one fermentation takes place in a sealed tank.
• The fermentation is stopped early by chilling, retaining natural sweetness and low alcohol.
• Examples: Asti DOCG, Moscato d'Asti DOCG.

• Carbonation: CO2 is simply injected into a still wine. This is the cheapest method and produces large, short-lived bubbles.

## Key Sparkling Wine Styles and Regions

• Champagne (France): Traditional Method. Grapes: Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Pinot Meunier. Known for complexity from lees aging.
• Cava (Spain): Traditional Method. Grapes: Macabeo, Xarel-lo, Parellada (local varieties), sometimes Chardonnay/Pinot Noir.
• Prosecco (Italy): Tank Method. Grape: Glera. Typically fresh, fruity, and floral. Produced in Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia.
• Asti DOCG / Moscato d'Asti DOCG (Italy): Asti Method. Grape: Muscat (Moscato Bianco). Sweet, low alcohol, aromatic, often fizzy (frizzante for Moscato d'Asti).
• Crémant (France): Traditional Method sparkling wines made outside of Champagne (e.g., Crémant de Bourgogne, Crémant d'Alsace).
• Sekt (Germany/Austria): Can be made by various methods, often from Riesling.

## Sweetness Levels (from driest to sweetest)

• Brut Nature/Zero Dosage: No sugar added.
• Extra Brut: Very dry.
• Brut: Dry (most common style).
• Extra Dry/Extra Sec: Off-dry (slightly sweet).
• Dry/Sec: Medium-dry (noticeably sweet).
• Demi-Sec: Sweet.
• Doux: Very sweet.

## Sweet Wines

Sweet wines achieve their sweetness in various ways, primarily by concentrating sugars in the grapes or by stopping fermentation before all sugars are converted to alcohol.

Concentrating Grape Sugars

• Noble Rot (Botrytis Cinerea): A beneficial fungus that dehydrates grapes, concentrating sugars and acids while adding distinctive flavours like honey, apricot, and marmalade. Requires specific conditions: morning mist/humidity followed by dry, sunny afternoons. Examples include Sauternes (Bordeaux), Tokaji (Hungary), and Beerenauslese/Trockenbeerenauslese (Germany).
• Drying Grapes: Grapes can be dried either on the vine (Passerillage) or after harvest (Passito method, e.g., Vin Santo, Recioto della Valpolicella). This dehydration shrivels the grapes, concentrating sugars and flavours.
• Freezing Grapes (Eiswein/Icewine): Grapes are left on the vine until they freeze solid. When pressed, the ice (water) remains in the press, extracting only the highly concentrated, sugary juice. Requires extremely cold temperatures (-7°C to -8°C).

Stopping Fermentation

• Chilling and Filtration: Fermentation can be stopped by rapidly chilling the wine, which inactivates the yeast. The wine is then filtered to remove the yeast cells, leaving residual sugar. This is common for many inexpensive and some high-quality sweet wines.
• Fortification: Adding a high-strength neutral grape spirit to the fermenting must. This kills the yeast, immediately stopping fermentation and preserving residual sugar. This method is used for sweet fortified wines like Port.

## Fortified Wines

Fortified wines are wines where a high-strength neutral grape spirit is added during or after fermentation. This increases the alcohol content and can either retain sweetness (if added during fermentation) or create a dry, higher-alcohol wine (if added after fermentation).

Sherry (Jerez, Spain)

Sherry is produced in southern Spain, primarily from Palomino (dry styles) and Pedro Ximénez (PX) or Moscatel (sweet styles) grapes. Most Sherries are aged using the Solera system, a complex fractional blending system that ensures consistency and complexity.

• Dry Styles:
• Fino & Manzanilla: Aged biologically under a layer of yeast called flor, which protects the wine from oxidation and imparts unique savoury, almond, and bready notes. Light-bodied, pale, and dry.
• Amontillado: Starts aging under flor, then the flor dies, and the wine ages oxidatively, developing nutty, caramel flavours.
• Oloroso: Aged oxidatively from the start, without flor, resulting in full-bodied, dark, nutty, and dried fruit flavours.
• Sweet Styles: Often made by blending dry Sherry with naturally sweet wines (e.g., PX or Moscatel made from dried grapes) or grape must. Examples include Pale Cream, Medium, and Cream Sherry.

Port (Douro Valley, Portugal)

Port is a sweet, fortified wine from Portugal, always fortified *during* fermentation to retain sweetness. The spirit added kills the yeast, leaving residual sugar. Port styles are broadly categorised by their aging process.

• Ruby Style Ports: Deeply coloured, fruity, and typically aged for a short period in large oak vessels or stainless steel. Examples include Ruby Port, Reserve Ruby Port, and Late Bottled Vintage (LBV) Port (from a single vintage, aged 4-6 years in wood).
• Tawny Style Ports: Lighter in colour, with nutty, oxidative, and caramel flavours, resulting from longer aging in small oak barrels. Examples include Tawny Port, Reserve Tawny Port, and Aged Tawny Ports (e.g., 10, 20, 30, 40 years old).
• Vintage Port: Produced from a single, exceptional vintage, aged only briefly in wood (max. 2.5 years) and intended for long bottle aging, developing complex tertiary notes over decades.

## Understanding Wine Labels

Wine labels are crucial for consumers, providing essential information about the wine inside the bottle. They can indicate origin, quality, style, and producer, guiding purchasing decisions.

## Mandatory Information

Certain information must be present on a wine label by law:

• Producer/Brand Name: Identifies the company or brand responsible for the wine.
• Country of Origin: Where the grapes were grown and the wine was made (e.g., 'Product of France').
• Volume: The amount of wine in the bottle (e.g., 75cl or 750ml).
• Alcohol by Volume (ABV): The percentage of alcohol (e.g., 13.5% vol).
• Allergen Information: Mandatory warnings, especially for sulfites (sulfur dioxide), which are common in wine.

## Optional Information

Many details are optional but highly informative:

• Grape Variety: Naming the grape(s) used (e.g., Chardonnay, Merlot). If named, typically a minimum percentage (e.g., 75-85% in many regions) of that grape must be used.
• Vintage: The year the grapes were harvested. If stated, usually a high percentage (e.g., 85% in EU, 95% in USA/Australia/NZ) of grapes must come from that year.
• Region/Geographical Indication (GI): Specifies the area where the grapes were grown. This is often the most important indicator of quality and style.
• Quality Designation: Terms like 'Reserve' or 'Estate Bottled' can suggest higher quality, but their meaning can vary significantly by region and may not be legally defined.
• Sweetness Levels: Especially for sparkling wines (e.g., Brut, Extra Dry, Dry, Demi-Sec, Doux) and some still wines.

## Geographical Indications (GIs)

GIs are protected names that identify wines originating from a specific place, whose quality, reputation, or other characteristics are essentially attributable to their geographical origin.

• Protected Designation of Origin (PDO): These are the strictest GIs. They dictate not only the geographical area but also grape varieties, winemaking techniques, and aging. Examples include AOP (Appellation d'Origine Protégée/Contrôlée) in France, DOCG/DOC (Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita/Controllata) in Italy, and DO/DOCa (Denominación de Origen/Calificada) in Spain. PDO wines often represent traditional styles and higher quality.
• Protected Geographical Indication (PGI): These GIs have broader, less strict rules regarding grape varieties and winemaking compared to PDOs. They still link the wine to a specific region. Examples include IGP (Indication Géographique Protégée) in France and IGT (Indicazione Geografica Tipica) in Italy. PGI wines offer more flexibility for winemakers.

Understanding these elements allows you to predict a wine's style and quality, making informed choices.