## Types of Life-Saving Appliances (LSA)

Life-Saving Appliances (LSAs) are crucial equipment designed to save lives at sea. Understanding their purpose, features, and correct use is fundamental for personal survival.

## Personal Life-Saving Appliances

• Lifejackets: These are designed to keep a person afloat and maintain their mouth and nose clear of the water, even if unconscious. All persons on board a vessel must have access to a lifejacket. Key features include a whistle for attracting attention, a light (often water-activated) for visibility at night, and often a grab handle for recovery. They come in inherently buoyant (foam-filled) and inflatable types. Proper donning is critical for effectiveness.

• Immersion Suits: Designed to protect the wearer from hypothermia in cold water, an immersion suit covers the entire body except for the face. They provide thermal insulation and often sufficient buoyancy, meaning a separate lifejacket may not be required if the suit itself provides adequate flotation. Features typically include attached gloves, a hood, and a waterproof zipper. They must be donned quickly, usually within two minutes.

• Anti-Exposure Suits: Similar to immersion suits but often less restrictive, allowing for more freedom of movement for work. They provide thermal protection and buoyancy but may require a separate lifejacket to be worn over them to meet buoyancy requirements. They are suitable for prolonged periods of exposure to cold conditions.

• Thermal Protective Aids (TPAs): These are bags or suits made of waterproof material with low thermal conductivity. Their primary purpose is to reduce the heat loss of a person in a survival craft or lifeboat, protecting against hypothermia and cold shock. They are not designed for in-water use.

## Other Essential LSAs

• Lifebuoys: Used for rescuing a person who has fallen overboard (man overboard). They are typically equipped with a self-igniting light for night use and/or a self-activating smoke signal for daytime use, along with a grab line.

• Pyrotechnics (Flares): Used for distress signalling. There are three main types:
• Rocket Parachute Flares: Emit a bright red light at high altitude, visible over long distances. For long-range distress signalling.
• Hand Flares: Emit a bright red light for a shorter duration, used for close-range signalling to attract attention to your immediate position.
• Buoyant Smoke Signals: Emit dense orange smoke for daylight signalling, used to indicate position to search and rescue units.

• Survival Craft: These include life rafts (inflatable, enclosed, designed to keep survivors dry and safe) and lifeboats (rigid, often engine-propelled, capable of carrying a larger number of people). They are the primary means of abandonment from a vessel in an emergency.

## Survival Craft and Equipment: Revision Notes

Understanding the types, equipment, and operation of survival craft is crucial for personal survival at sea. The primary survival craft are lifeboats and liferafts.

## Types of Survival Craft

• Lifeboats: These are rigid, self-contained craft designed for long-term survival.
• Totally Enclosed Lifeboats: Most common, provide full protection from elements, are self-righting, and propelled by a diesel engine. Can be launched by davits (gravity or hydraulic) or free-fall (launched from a ramp).
• Partially Enclosed Lifeboats: Have a rigid canopy over part of the boat, often found on passenger ships.
• Liferafts: Inflatable, collapsible craft designed for rapid deployment.
• Launched by being thrown overboard (deploying automatically via a painter line) or by davit-launched systems.
• Equipped with a hydrostatic release unit (HRU) which automatically releases the liferaft from a sinking ship at 2-4 meters depth.
• Feature a canopy for protection, a boarding ramp, and an internal and external lifeline.
• Rescue Boats: Smaller, faster craft used for man overboard recovery and towing liferafts.

## Essential Equipment in Survival Craft

All survival craft are equipped with essential items for survival and signalling:

• Signalling Devices:
• EPIRB (Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon): Transmits distress signals to satellites (406 MHz) and a homing signal (121.5 MHz) to aid rescuers.
• SART (Search and Rescue Transponder): Responds to X-band radar (9 GHz) from searching vessels/aircraft, displaying a series of dots on their radar screen.
• Flares: Parachute flares (red, long-range distress), hand flares (red, short-range illumination), and buoyant smoke signals (orange, daylight position marking).
• Signalling mirror and whistle.
• Survival Aids:
• Thermal Protective Aids (TPAs): Insulated bags to reduce heat loss and prevent hypothermia.
• Sea Anchor: Deployed to reduce drift, keep the craft's bow pointed into waves, and act as a drogue for stability.
• Water rations, food rations (high-energy biscuits), desalting apparatus (manual reverse osmosis pump), water collection bags.
• First aid kit, fishing tackle, repair kit (for liferafts), bailer, sponges, knife.
• Navigation & Communication: Compass, radar reflector, GMDSS handheld VHF radio.

## Launching and Operation

• Familiarisation with the launching mechanisms (davits, free-fall ramp, HRU).
• Understanding the release mechanisms (on-load/off-load) for lifeboats.
• Knowing how to board, secure, and release the craft.
• Procedures for righting an inverted liferaft.
• Using the painter line to keep the liferaft close to the ship during deployment.

## Personal Life-Saving Appliances

Personal life-saving appliances are crucial equipment designed to aid individual survival in an emergency at sea. Their primary purpose is to keep a person safe, visible, and protected from the elements until rescue arrives. Understanding their function, correct use, and location is fundamental for maritime safety.

Lifejackets

Lifejackets are designed to support a person in the water, keeping their mouth and nose clear of the surface, even if they are unconscious. They are mandatory for all persons on board and must be readily accessible. Key features include:

• Buoyancy: Provides sufficient lift to keep the wearer afloat.
• Whistle: For attracting attention.
• Light: Automatically activated upon immersion to enhance visibility, especially at night.
• Retro-reflective tape: Strategically placed to reflect light, aiding search and rescue efforts.
• Grab loop/buddy line: For easy retrieval from the water.

Lifejackets come in various sizes (adult, child, infant) and must be donned correctly and quickly. Regular inspection ensures they remain in good working order.

Immersion Suits

An immersion suit (also known as a survival suit) is a protective suit designed to reduce the risk of hypothermia for a person in cold water. It provides both thermal insulation and buoyancy. Essential characteristics include:

• Waterproof and Insulated: Made from materials that prevent water ingress and retain body heat.
• Attached hood and gloves/mittens: To protect extremities from cold.
• Whistle and Light: Similar to lifejackets, for signaling and visibility.
• Retro-reflective tape: For enhanced detection.
• Donning Speed: Designed to be donned quickly, typically within 2 minutes without assistance. Some suits require a lifejacket to be worn over them, while others provide sufficient inherent buoyancy. They are vital for personnel involved in abandonment procedures or those working in cold environments.

Thermal Protective Aids (TPAs)

Thermal Protective Aids (TPAs) are simple, lightweight bags or suits made of waterproof material with low thermal conductivity. Their main purpose is to reduce heat loss from a person in a survival craft or liferaft, thereby preventing hypothermia. They are not generally designed for use in the water itself, but rather for individuals who are already out of the water but exposed to cold conditions. TPAs cover the entire body except for the face, providing an effective barrier against cold, wind, and spray. Every person in a survival craft should have access to a TPA.

General Considerations

All personal life-saving appliances must be stowed in clearly marked, easily accessible locations, often near muster stations or embarkation points. Regular drills and training are essential to ensure that everyone on board knows where these appliances are, how to don them correctly, and their specific purpose. Proper maintenance and inspection routines are critical to ensure they are always ready for use in an emergency.

## Emergency Signals and Pyrotechnics

Effective use of emergency signals is crucial for attracting attention and facilitating rescue in a survival situation. Understanding the different types of signals, their proper deployment, and safety precautions is paramount.

## Pyrotechnic Distress Signals

These are visual signals designed to attract attention over varying distances and conditions.

• Rocket Parachute Flare: This is a long-range distress signal, visible both day and night. It is fired vertically and ejects a red flare at an altitude of approximately 300 metres, which then descends slowly by parachute, burning for at least 40 seconds at a very high intensity (around 30,000 candela). To use, remove the cap, point away from the body and vessel, and activate according to instructions.

• Hand Flare: A short-range distress signal, primarily for pinpointing your position to rescuers who are already in sight. It emits a bright red flame for approximately 60 seconds at an intensity of about 15,000 candela. Hold it downwind and over the side of the survival craft, ensuring it's pointed away from people and flammable materials.

• Buoyant Smoke Signal: This signal is designed for daylight use only. When activated and thrown into the water, it emits a dense cloud of orange smoke for at least 3 minutes. It helps mark the position of a survival craft or person in the water, especially for aerial search. Ensure it's deployed downwind to avoid smoke entering the survival craft.

## Other Emergency Signals

Beyond pyrotechnics, several other devices aid in signaling distress:

• EPIRB (Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon): An electronic device that, when activated, transmits a distress signal via satellite to a rescue coordination centre, providing your precise location. It operates on 406 MHz and often includes a homing signal on 121.5 MHz.

• SART (Search and Rescue Transponder) / AIS SART: A SART responds to X-band radar pulses from searching vessels or aircraft, displaying a series of 12 dots on their radar screen, indicating the SART's position. An AIS SART transmits its position via AIS (Automatic Identification System).

• Signalling Mirror: A simple, effective daylight signal. Use it to reflect sunlight towards aircraft or vessels. Practice aiming it by holding up two fingers in a 'V' shape towards the target, then reflecting the sun's spot between them.

• Whistle: An audible signal, particularly useful in fog or low visibility conditions, or when close to a rescuer. Three short blasts followed by three long blasts followed by three short blasts (SOS) is an internationally recognised distress signal.

• Waterproof Light / Strobe Light: A flashing light, especially a strobe, can be highly visible at night. Use it to attract attention, flashing the international distress signal (SOS: three short, three long, three short).

## Safety and Storage

All pyrotechnics have expiry dates and must be replaced before they expire. Always read the instructions carefully before use. Handle them with care, point away from yourself and others, and never use them for anything other than genuine distress. Store them in a dry, easily accessible location, away from heat and direct sunlight.

## Principles of Survival at Sea

Survival at sea hinges on preparation, immediate action, and a strong will to live. Understanding the primary threats and correct procedures significantly increases chances of rescue. The STCW Personal Survival Techniques (PST) course emphasizes these principles.

## Primary Threats to Survival

• Hypothermia: This is the most significant threat. It's a dangerous drop in body temperature, often caused by exposure to cold water or air. Symptoms include shivering, confusion, and loss of consciousness. Prevention involves wearing appropriate thermal protection (e.g., immersion suits, thermal protective aids - TPAs), getting out of the water quickly, and huddling for warmth if in a survival craft.
• Dehydration: Lack of fresh water is critical. Never drink seawater, as it accelerates dehydration and kidney failure. Rationing fresh water from the survival craft's supplies is paramount from the outset.
• Injury and Illness: Pre-existing conditions or injuries sustained during abandonment can worsen quickly. Administering first aid and keeping casualties warm and comfortable is vital.
• Psychological Factors: Fear, panic, and despair can be as dangerous as physical threats. Maintaining morale, discipline, and a positive mental attitude through leadership and shared tasks is crucial.

## Immediate Actions Upon Abandoning Ship

• Don PFDs/Immersion Suits: Ensure everyone has donned their Personal Flotation Device (PFD) or immersion suit correctly before entering the water.
• Stay Together: If in the water, form a huddle to conserve body heat and increase visibility for rescuers.
• Enter Survival Craft Safely: Board life rafts or lifeboats as quickly and safely as possible, ensuring no one is left behind.

## Actions Inside a Survival Craft

Once inside, immediate actions are critical:

• Secure the Craft: Cut painter line, deploy sea anchor to prevent drifting and maintain stability, close entrances.
• First Aid: Attend to any injuries or seasickness.
• Rationing: Establish strict rationing of water and food immediately.
• Lookout and Signaling: Maintain a continuous lookout for vessels or aircraft. Use signaling devices like flares, signaling mirrors, and activate EPIRB (Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon) and SART (Search and Rescue Transponder) if available.
• Bailing and Maintenance: Keep the craft dry by bailing. Inspect and maintain all equipment.
• Morale: Engage in light activities, share stories, and assign duties to maintain discipline and hope.

## Search and Rescue (SAR)

Your primary goal is to be found. Maximize your visibility using all available signaling equipment. Understand that rescue may take time, so endurance and perseverance are key.

## Hypothermia and Cold Water Immersion

Cold Water Immersion (CWI) refers to the physiological responses and dangers associated with falling into cold water. It's crucial to distinguish between the immediate effects and the eventual onset of hypothermia.

## Stages of Cold Water Immersion

1. Cold Shock Response (0-3 minutes): This is the most immediate and dangerous phase. The sudden immersion causes an involuntary gasp, rapid hyperventilation, increased heart rate, and blood pressure. The primary risk here is drowning due to inhaling water, or cardiac arrest. Staying calm and controlling breathing is vital.

2. Cold Incapacitation / Swim Failure (3-30 minutes): As the body cools, muscles and nerves become impaired. Within minutes, the ability to perform coordinated movements, such as swimming or grasping rescue lines, is severely reduced or lost. This leads to swim failure and an inability to self-rescue.

3. Hypothermia (30+ minutes): This occurs when the body's core temperature drops below 35°C (95°F). Symptoms progress from shivering, confusion, slurred speech, and clumsiness, to eventual unconsciousness and cardiac arrest. Survival time is highly dependent on water temperature, clothing, and body fat.

4. Post-Rescue Collapse: Even after rescue, individuals are at risk. Rapid re-warming can cause blood pressure to drop critically, leading to re-warming shock or cardiac arrest. Gentle handling and slow re-warming are essential.

## Factors Affecting Survival

• Water Temperature: Colder water drastically reduces survival time.
• Clothing/PPE: Wearing appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) like Immersion Suits or Thermal Protective Aids (TPAs) significantly extends survival time by providing insulation.
• Body Fat: Individuals with more body fat may have slightly better insulation.
• Behaviour: Minimising movement reduces heat loss. Adopting the Heat Escape Lessening Posture (HELP) position (knees to chest, arms crossed) or Huddle position in groups can conserve heat.

## Prevention and Mitigation

• Always wear appropriate PPE when working near cold water.
• If immersed, focus on controlling your breathing during cold shock.
• Minimise movement to conserve energy and heat.
• Adopt the HELP position if alone, or Huddle with others.
• Attempt to get out of the water onto any floating object if possible.
• Signal for help immediately.

## First Aid Principles

• Handle the casualty gently to avoid triggering post-rescue collapse.
• Remove wet clothing and replace with dry, warm insulation.
• Provide warm, sweet drinks if conscious.
• Monitor vital signs and seek immediate medical attention. Avoid vigorous rubbing or rapid re-warming methods.

## Search and Rescue (SAR) Operations

Search and Rescue (SAR) is a vital, coordinated effort to locate and provide assistance to persons in distress. Understanding how SAR operates and your role as a survivor is crucial for increasing the chances of rescue.

Raising the Alarm: Distress Signals

The most critical step in SAR is to alert authorities to your distress. Various devices and methods are used:

• EPIRB (Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon): Activated manually or automatically upon immersion, an EPIRB transmits a distress signal via satellite to a Rescue Coordination Centre (RCC), providing your precise location.
• SART (Search and Rescue Transponder): Responds to X-band radar signals from searching vessels or aircraft, appearing as a series of 12 dots on their radar screen, guiding them to your location.
• VHF DSC (Digital Selective Calling): Allows a distress alert to be sent digitally to other vessels and shore stations within range, often including position data.
• Flares: Visual signals. Parachute flares ascend high and burn brightly for a short period, visible over long distances. Handheld flares are for short-range signalling, especially when rescuers are nearby. Smoke signals are for daytime use.
• Signal Mirror/Whistle: Simple, effective short-range visual and audible signals.
• Satellite Phones/PLBs (Personal Locator Beacons): Can also be used to contact rescue services.

Actions While Awaiting Rescue

Once the alarm is raised, your actions significantly impact survival and rescue success:

• Stay Together: If in a group, huddle together to conserve body heat (the huddle formation) and make yourselves a larger, more visible target for rescuers.
• Conserve Energy: Avoid unnecessary movement. Stay calm.
• Prevent Hypothermia: Protect yourself from cold. If in a survival craft, ensure it's enclosed. If in water, adopt the HELP (Heat Escape Lessening Posture) position if alone, or huddle in a group.
• Signal Rescuers: Continuously look for signs of rescuers. Use flares, signal mirrors, whistles, or wave brightly coloured items when you spot them. Only use flares when you are sure they will be seen.
• Maintain Morale: Support each other and stay positive.

Rescue Procedures

When rescuers arrive, follow their instructions precisely:

• Helicopter Rescue:
• Clear the deck/area of loose items.
• Secure yourself and others.
• Be prepared for strong downdraft.
• NEVER touch the hoist wire until it has grounded on the survival craft or water, as it may carry a static electricity charge.
• Follow the instructions of the helicopter crew.
• Ship Rescue:
• The ship will likely approach from a safe direction, often to provide a lee (shelter from wind/waves).
• Be prepared for the ship's motion and the use of recovery devices (nets, scramble nets, lines, davits).
• Follow the instructions of the ship's crew.

Post-Rescue Care

Once rescued, immediate medical assessment and care are crucial. Survivors are often suffering from hypothermia, shock, or injuries. They will need warmth, rehydration, and professional medical attention.

## Emergency Drills and Musters

Emergency drills and musters are crucial for ensuring the safety of everyone on board a vessel. Their primary purpose is to prepare crew and passengers for real emergencies, ensuring everyone knows their roles, responsibilities, and the correct procedures to follow. Regular drills help to familiarise individuals with emergency equipment, escape routes, and muster stations, leading to a calm and efficient response when an actual incident occurs.

## Types and Frequency of Drills

The main types of emergency drills include fire drills and abandon ship drills. According to STCW regulations, abandon ship drills and fire drills must be conducted at least once every month. For passenger ships, a drill must be held within 24 hours of passengers embarking if more than 25% of the passengers are new. These drills simulate real scenarios, allowing crew to practice using firefighting equipment, launching lifeboats/liferafts, and accounting for all personnel. Other drills may include man overboard, pollution prevention, and security drills.

## Emergency Signals and Actions

Upon hearing an emergency alarm, it is vital to know what to do. The general emergency alarm signal consists of seven or more short blasts followed by one long blast on the ship's whistle or alarm system. Upon hearing this, all personnel must immediately proceed to their designated muster station. The abandon ship signal is usually the general emergency alarm followed by a verbal order or further specific instructions.

## Muster Stations and Muster Lists

A muster station is a designated safe location on the ship where crew and passengers assemble in an emergency. Each person on board is assigned to a specific muster station, which is clearly indicated on the muster list. The muster list is a vital document displayed prominently around the ship, detailing:

• Each person's assigned muster station.
• Specific emergency duties for each crew member (e.g., firefighting, launching survival craft, assisting passengers).
• The general emergency alarm and abandon ship signals.
• Instructions for passengers.

When proceeding to the muster station, always take your lifejacket. Crew members with specific duties must proceed to their stations to perform their assigned tasks. At the muster station, personnel will be accounted for, given further instructions, and prepared for evacuation if necessary. Familiarity with the muster list and participation in drills ensures an organised and effective response to any emergency.