The Rules of the Air (UK ANO / Standardised European Rules of the Air, SERA) exist to keep aircraft apart and predictable. As PIC, you're responsible for complying with them at all times, even under ATC instruction.
When aircraft of different types converge, the general order of priority is:
When two aircraft are converging at similar heights, the one that has the other on its right must give way. Power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft must give way to airships, gliders and balloons. Do not turn left or right to cross in front unless well clear.
When aircraft are approaching head-on (or nearly so) with risk of collision, each must alter course to the right.
An aircraft being overtaken has right of way. The overtaking aircraft (whether climbing, descending or level) must keep clear by altering course to the right, and stays clear until well past and clear. This applies whether in the air or on the ground/water.
Aircraft taxiing must give way to aircraft landing, taking off or about to take off. When two aircraft are approaching head-on on the ground, both must stop or alter course to the right. When converging, the one with the other on its right gives way.
Learn the hierarchy (balloon > airship > glider > towing aircraft > powered aircraft), the three geometry rules (converging, head-on, overtaking), and the landing priority rule cold — these come up constantly in the exam.
UK airspace is split into classes A to G (no B in the UK) so pilots and controllers know what service, clearance and separation to expect. As a PPL holder flying VFR you will mostly meet Class D, E, F and G, plus the odd Class A transit corridor to avoid.
Instrument flight only - VFR flight is not permitted at all. You will find Class A in airways and around major airports. If you are VFR you must stay clear or route around it; entry without an ATC clearance is a serious infringement.
Class D covers most UK controlled airports below the airways, for example many regional aerodromes with a Control Zone (CTR) and Control Area (CTA). Both IFR and VFR flights are allowed, but every flight needs an ATC clearance to enter. VFR traffic gets traffic information on other traffic but no separation is guaranteed from other VFR flights - separation is only provided between IFR flights, and between IFR and VFR. Minimum weather for VFR in Class D is 5 km visibility and clear of cloud, remaining in sight of the surface.
Open to IFR and VFR without a clearance, though IFR flights get an ATC service. VFR flights are not required to be in radio contact and get no service unless they ask. Fairly rare in the UK core network but appears around some airways edges.
Class F is advisory only and now uncommon in the UK. Class G is uncontrolled airspace - no clearance and no ATC service is required, though a Flight Information Service (FIS) or Basic Service can be requested from a radar unit if available. Most PPL cross-country flying happens in Class G. VFR minima in Class G at or below 3000 ft amsl are 5 km visibility and clear of cloud, in sight of the surface; above 3000 ft the standard VMC minima of 1500 m horizontal and 1000 ft vertical clearance from cloud with 5 km visibility apply (8 km at or above FL100).
A clearance is permission from ATC to enter controlled airspace and must be read back accurately, especially level, heading and squawk instructions. Never enter Class A, C or D airspace without a clearance, even if the boundary is only just ahead - request it in good time. If a clearance cannot be given, ATC will tell you to remain clear; you must then route around the zone. Always fly the clearance exactly as given, or query it immediately if you cannot comply.
The LAPL(A) and PPL(A) are the two main routes into fixed-wing flying.
LAPL(A) needs 30 hours flight time minimum, allows carriage of up to 3 passengers, and is restricted to single-engine piston aeroplanes or motor gliders of max 2000kg MTOM.
PPL(A) needs 45 hours flight time minimum, allows carriage of any number of passengers seats fit, and is the gateway to further ratings such as night, IR(R) and CPL.
Both need a minimum of 10 hours supervised solo flight time, including 5 hours solo cross-country with one qualifying flight of at least 150nm (270km) with two full-stop landings at different aerodromes for PPL, or 3 hours solo cross-country including one flight of at least 80nm with a full-stop landing away from departure for LAPL.
Minimum age to hold a LAPL(A) or PPL(A) is 17, though solo flight can start at 16.
Theoretical knowledge exam pass mark is 75 percent across 9 subjects (Air Law is one of them).
All 9 theory exams must be passed within an 18 month period, and the skill test must be completed within 24 months of the first theory pass.
The SEP (single-engine piston) class rating is embedded in most PPLs and needs revalidation every 24 months.
A night rating needs 5 hours night flying including 3 hours dual, 1 hour cross-country and 5 solo take-offs and landings at night, and once gained does not expire.
An aerobatic rating and a towing rating are separate add-ons with their own minimum hours.
A Class 2 medical is the standard requirement for PPL(A) holders, valid for 5 years under age 40, and 2 years from age 40 (reducing further past 50 for some conditions).
LAPL(A) holders may instead use the simpler LAPL medical certificate, self-declared eligible but issued by an AME, GP or AeMC, valid for 5 years under 40 and 2 years from age 40.
Pilots must not fly if they know or suspect any medical condition making them unfit, and must inform their AME of any new condition, medication or hospital treatment.
Do not confuse LAPL and PPL passenger limits — LAPL is capped at 3 passengers, PPL is not capped by licence type.
Do not assume ratings never expire — SEP class ratings lapse every 24 months and need a proficiency check or sufficient recent experience to revalidate.
Do not forget recency requirements separate from medical validity — 12 take-offs and landings in the preceding 90 days are needed to carry passengers, 3 of which at night if flying passengers at night.
Always remember revalidation can be done either by experience (hours plus a check flight) or by passing a proficiency check with an examiner within the 3 months before expiry.
Unless told otherwise by ATC or published charts, the standard circuit is flown to the LEFT, at a nominated height (commonly 1000ft aal for light aircraft, but always check the AIP/chart for the specific aerodrome). Join overhead or via the deadside, and always give way to aircraft already established in the circuit or on final approach. An aircraft landing or on final has right of way over one about to take off.
An aircraft in the air, or taxiing, must give way to an aircraft landing or about to land. When two aircraft are approaching to land, the one at the lower height has right of way, but it must not cut in front of another that is on final approach lower down or overtake it. Aircraft must not overtake or cut in front of another aircraft on final approach or landing.
A square signals area near the control tower, if displayed, shows ground signals are in use - fly a normal circuit and watch for them, since they may indicate the runway/direction in use or hazards. A black landing 'T' shows landing direction. Two red balls or a red-and-yellow striped item vertically displayed usually mean the landing area is unsafe or unfit for use. A white dumb-bell shape means light aircraft must use the marked runway/strip only, and if it has black bands across the arms, wheeled aircraft are confined to the paved surfaces.
These matter when radio has failed:
At night, an aircraft acknowledges by moving its ailerons or rudder, or by flashing its landing light on and off. By day, rocking the wings does the job (except when on final approach).
A red pyrotechnic fired from the ground, regardless of any other instruction, means do not land for now - go around and wait for further signals.
Candidates often mix up steady vs flashing red, or forget the ground meanings differ from the in-flight meanings for the same colour/pattern. Also remember the lower aircraft has priority only when both are on approach to land - it does not grant a right to cut in or overtake.
Every aircraft needs a valid set of documents and a current airworthiness status before it can legally fly. As Pilot in Command you are responsible for checking this before every flight, not just trusting the aircraft looks fine.
The ARC is normally valid for 1 year and must be renewed by an approved organisation or authorised engineer. Without a valid ARC, the CofA is not considered in force, so the aircraft is not legally airworthy even though the CofA itself has not expired.
Questions often test the exact validity period of the ARC (1 year) and which document proves registration versus airworthiness versus noise compliance - learn to tell these apart quickly.
Under SERA, every flight is either VFR (visual) or IFR (instrument). VFR flights must stay in Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) at all times - if you cannot maintain VMC you must either turn back, land, or if rated and equipped, switch to IFR.
The rules split at 3000ft AMSL because above that height, aircraft are moving faster relative to each other and you need more room to see and avoid.
Inside a control zone, if the weather is below the normal VMC minima, ATC can issue a Special VFR clearance. The pilot must remain clear of cloud, in sight of the surface, with flight visibility of at least 1800m (10km for jets, though PPL students rarely meet this). SVFR is granted at controller discretion and may carry extra restrictions.
Above the transition altitude (commonly 3000-6000ft depending on the airspace, moving to a fixed regional value under UK airspace modernisation), IFR flights fly odd thousands of feet (FL070, FL090...) on tracks 000-179 degrees magnetic, and even thousands (FL080, FL100...) on tracks 180-359. VFR flights add 500ft to these levels (e.g. FL075, FL095) to keep IFR and VFR traffic vertically separated.
Students often mix up the 3000ft/140kt visibility figures (8km vs 5km), forget that Class A is always IFR, and confuse the semi-circular rule direction (it is based on magnetic track, not compass heading).