The fire triangle

Fire needs three things at once: heat (an ignition source), fuel (something that burns) and oxygen. Take away any one side of the triangle and the fire cannot start or cannot continue. Some texts call it the fire tetrahedron, adding a fourth element - the chemical chain reaction - but for fire marshal purposes the triangle is the model examiners expect.

Fire prevention strategy

Prevention works by controlling one or more sides of the triangle before ignition:

• Control heat sources - safe use of electrical equipment, hot work permits, no smoking policies, keeping heaters clear of combustibles
• Control fuel - good housekeeping, correct storage of flammable liquids and gases, clearing waste and packaging, minimising combustible loading
• Control oxygen - keeping fire doors shut to limit air feeding a fire, using inert gas suppression in specialist areas, sealed storage for oxidising or flammable substances

Common causes of fire in the workplace

The usual culprits, again and again, are:

• Electrical faults - overloaded sockets, damaged cables, unmaintained equipment
• Arson - the single biggest cause of large workplace fires in the UK
• Smoking materials - discarded cigarettes near combustible waste
• Cooking equipment left unattended
• Faulty or misused heaters
• Poor housekeeping - accumulated rubbish, blocked ventilation, combustible storage too close to ignition sources

The role of the fire marshal

Under the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 (RRO 2005), the Responsible Person must carry out and keep under review a fire risk assessment covering ignition sources, fuel sources and the people at risk. Fire marshals support this by:

• Spotting and reporting fire hazards as part of routine checks
• Making sure escape routes and fire doors stay clear and unobstructed
• Checking that flammable materials are stored correctly and away from ignition sources
• Reinforcing good housekeeping standards day to day

Common mistakes candidates make

• Confusing the fire triangle (heat, fuel, oxygen) with the extinguisher classes (which relate to fuel type, not the triangle)
• Thinking removing oxygen means removing all air - in practice it means limiting the air supply reaching the fire, e.g. shutting a door
• Forgetting that housekeeping (fuel control) is the most common and most preventable factor in workplace fires
• Assuming arson only affects large sites - it is a leading cause across businesses of all sizes

Key numbers to remember

• 3 sides to the fire triangle: heat, fuel, oxygen
• 4 elements in the fire tetrahedron if a chain reaction is added
• 1 element removed is enough to stop combustion

Who is the 'responsible person'?

Under the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 (RRO), every non-domestic premises in England and Wales must have a 'responsible person'. This is usually the employer, but can also be the building owner, occupier, or anyone with control of the premises (eg a managing agent or landlord for common areas). If there is more than one responsible person in a shared building, they must cooperate and coordinate fire safety measures between them.

The core legal duty

The responsible person must carry out a suitable and sufficient fire risk assessment (FRA) and keep it under review. There is no fixed legal review interval, but it must be reviewed whenever there is reason to suspect it's no longer valid - eg after a fire, a near-miss, building works, a change of use, or a significant increase in staff or stock.

Written record threshold

If you employ 5 or more people, the significant findings of the FRA MUST be recorded in writing (this includes any group of 5+ across all premises, not just per-site). Below 5 employees it's not a strict legal requirement to write it down, but it is always best practice and strongly recommended - an unrecorded assessment is very hard to defend if things go wrong.

What 'suitable and sufficient' means

The FRA must identify: fire hazards (sources of ignition, fuel and oxygen), people at risk (including anyone especially vulnerable - the elderly, disabled, lone workers, visitors, sleeping occupants), and existing precautions, then evaluate and reduce the risk as far as reasonably practicable.

Enforcement and penalties

The local fire and rescue authority enforces the RRO. Inspectors can issue an Alterations Notice, Enforcement Notice, or Prohibition Notice (the latter stops use of premises immediately if there's a risk to life). Breaches are a criminal offence - unlimited fines and up to 2 years' imprisonment for serious breaches, and directors/managers can be personally prosecuted if the failure was due to their consent, connivance, or neglect.

Common exam mistakes

• Confusing the RRO 2005 (England & Wales) with separate Scottish and Northern Irish fire safety legislation - don't assume UK-wide.
• Thinking a fire risk assessment is a one-off tick-box exercise rather than a living document requiring review.
• Assuming only the employer can be the responsible person - it can be anyone with control.
• Believing under-5-employee premises never need anything written down - best practice still says do it.

Why detection and alarms matter

Under the RRO 2005 the Responsible Person must ensure a fire is detected quickly and everyone is warned in time to escape. The system chosen depends on the risk assessment - not every building needs the same level of protection.

Detection types

• Automatic fire detection (AFD): smoke, heat or multi-sensor detectors linked to a central panel.
• Manual call points (break-glass units): sited on escape routes, especially at exits and stairwell doors, so nobody has to travel more than about 45 metres to reach one on the way out.
• Category naming (BS 5839-1) shows what a system protects: L1-L5 for life protection (L1 = most complete cover, detectors in nearly all areas) and P1-P2 for property protection.

Alarm sounders

• A fire alarm must be audible throughout the building - the minimum standard is 65 decibels in all areas, or 5 decibels above any background noise if that is higher.
• Where people sleep, sounders near the bed head must reach at least 75 decibels to wake someone.
• Weekly test of the alarm system is standard practice, using a different call point or zone each week, at a pre-agreed time so it is not mistaken for a real fire.
• A full test and service by a competent engineer should happen at least every six months.

Emergency lighting

• Required wherever normal lighting failure would leave escape routes unlit, or in windowless rooms and large open areas.
• Must provide at least 1 lux along the centre line of an escape route so people can see to walk out safely.
• Standard duration is 3 hours of backup power, though 1 hour may be acceptable if the building is evacuated immediately and not re-occupied until power is restored.
• Monthly function test (brief switch-over check) plus an annual full 3-hour duration test are both expected.
• Emergency lighting should illuminate exit signs, changes of direction, stairs, fire equipment and final exit doors.

Common mistakes to avoid

• Assuming a smoke alarm in a kitchen is fine - heat detectors are correct there to avoid false alarms from cooking.
• Ignoring test records - a missed weekly or six-monthly test is a compliance failure even if the system works.
• Ticking off emergency lighting on the plan but never actually testing the 3-hour duration.
• Ignoring dB targets and installing sounders that cannot be heard over background noise.
• Forgetting that call points still need to be within reach on every practical escape route, not just near the main entrance.

Why evacuation planning matters

A fire evacuation plan is only as good as its weakest link. The RRO 2005 places a legal duty on the 'responsible person' to prepare an emergency plan and make sure everyone in the building can get out safely, including staff, visitors and anyone with additional needs.

Assembly points

• Every building needs at least one designated assembly point, sited a safe distance from the building (well clear of the fire exits, not blocking access routes for fire appliances).
• If a building has multiple assembly points, each fire warden should know which one their zone uses.
• A roll call must happen at the assembly point using an up-to-date register (staff list, visitor sign-in book, contractor log).
• Nobody should re-enter the building for any reason, including pets or personal belongings, until the fire service confirms it is safe.
• The assembly point should never be used as a car park muster area that blocks vehicle access.

PEEPs (Personal Emergency Evacuation Plans)

• A PEEP is a bespoke plan for anyone who cannot self-evacuate unaided, for example wheelchair users, visually impaired people, or those with temporary injuries.
• PEEPs must be agreed individually, in writing, and reviewed regularly, not assumed by a generic policy.
• A GEEP (General Emergency Evacuation Plan) covers visitors or occasional users where an individual PEEP is not practical, using trained staff 'buddies' instead.
• Evacuation lifts may only be used if specifically designed and certified for fire evacuation; ordinary passenger lifts must NEVER be used during a fire.
• Refuge points (fire-protected areas, often on stairwell landings) allow a person to wait safely for assisted evacuation; they must have a means of two-way communication (an intercom or alarm point) to summon help.
• PEEPs are not just for permanent staff; temporary and agency workers, and even short-term visitors with mobility needs, may need one arranged on the day.

Common mistakes to avoid

• Assuming someone else has done the roll call.
• Leaving assembly points too close to the building, or blocking the fire brigade access road.
• Forgetting visitors and contractors are not on the usual staff register — sign-in sheets must be brought out too.
• Confusing a refuge point with a place of ultimate safety — it is a temporary safe waiting area only, not the end of the evacuation.
• Using a normal lift 'just this once' — heat and power loss can trap people inside.

Fire warden's role on the day

Sweep your designated zone (including toilets, stairwells and quiet rooms), close doors behind you to slow fire spread, direct people to the correct exit and assembly point, and report a clear headcount to the incident controller or fire service on arrival.

Why extinguisher knowledge matters

A Fire Marshal is not expected to fight a fire, but you must know what is available, what it is for, and when NOT to use it. Tackling a fire is always optional and only for small, contained fires in their early stages - if in doubt, evacuate and let the fire brigade deal with it.

The colour-coding system

UK extinguishers are red-bodied with a coloured band showing the agent inside.

• Water (red band) - Class A (wood, paper, textiles) only. Never use on electrical or burning fat/oil fires.
• Foam (cream band) - Class A and Class B (flammable liquids). Safer than water on liquid spills.
• CO2 (black band) - Class B and electrical fires. Leaves no residue, ideal for offices and server rooms.
• Dry powder (blue band) - Multi-purpose, covers Class A, B and C (gases). Messy and reduces visibility, so avoid in confined spaces.
• Wet chemical (yellow band) - Class F (cooking oils and fats) fires only. Designed for commercial kitchens.

Fire classes recap

• Class A: solid combustibles (wood, paper, fabric).
• Class B: flammable liquids (petrol, solvents, paint).
• Class C: flammable gases (propane, butane).
• Class D: metals (rare, needs specialist powder).
• Class F: cooking oils and fats.
• Electrical fires are not a lettered class but need a non-conductive agent (CO2 or powder).

Safe use - the PASS technique

• Pull the safety pin.
• Aim the nozzle at the base of the fire, not the flames.
• Squeeze the handle gently.
• Sweep side to side across the base of the fire.

Critical rules and common mistakes

• Never use water or foam on live electrical equipment - risk of electrocution.
• Never use water on a burning fat pan - it causes a violent fireball (steam explosion). Only wet chemical or a fire blanket is safe.
• Always keep an exit behind you and never let the fire come between you and the door.
• One extinguisher, one attempt - if it does not work in seconds, leave and raise the alarm.
• CO2 extinguishers get very cold when discharged - hold only by the horn's insulated handle, never the horn itself, to avoid cold burns.
• Extinguishers must be serviced annually (BS 5306-3) and wall-mounted with the top handle roughly 1 metre from the floor.
• Powder extinguishers are unsuitable for use in small enclosed spaces due to inhalation risk and loss of visibility.

What a fire risk assessment actually is

Under the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 (RRO), the 'responsible person' for a building must carry out a suitable and sufficient fire risk assessment (FRA) and review it regularly. As a marshal or warden you won't usually write the FRA, but you must understand it, know where it's kept, and feed hazards back into it.

The five steps

• Identify fire hazards: ignition sources (naked flames, hot processes, electrical faults), fuel (paper, packaging, furniture, chemicals), and oxygen sources.
• Identify people at risk: staff, visitors, contractors, and especially those especially at risk - lone workers, people with disabilities, members of the public unfamiliar with the layout.
• Evaluate, remove or reduce the risks: get rid of the hazard where possible, or control it (safe storage, hot work permits, ignition control).
• Record findings, prepare an emergency plan, and provide training - a written record is a legal must if you employ 5 or more people.
• Review regularly and after any significant change - new layout, new equipment, a near miss, or a change in staff numbers.

Housekeeping - the daily discipline

Good housekeeping is the cheapest and most effective fire prevention tool there is.

• Keep combustible waste (paper, cardboard, packaging) to a minimum and remove it at the end of each day.
• Never prop open fire doors - they hold back smoke and fire for a set time (commonly 30 or 60 minutes, shown as FD30/FD60) and only work if kept shut.
• Keep escape routes and fire exits completely clear - no storage, no furniture, not even 'just for five minutes'.
• Keep final exits unlocked and available whenever the building is occupied.
• Don't overload sockets or leave portable heaters unattended near combustibles.
• Store flammable liquids and chemicals in a proper, ventilated, fire-rated cabinet or store, away from ignition sources.
• Check that fire extinguishers, alarm call points and signage are unobstructed and visible.

Common mistakes to spot on patrol

• Fire doors wedged open with a chair or fire extinguisher.
• Boxes or bikes stacked in a corridor that's also an escape route.
• Extension leads daisy-chained together or overloaded.
• Smoking materials disposed of in a normal bin rather than a metal one.
• Fire risk assessment out of date - it should be a living document, reviewed at least annually or after any change.

As a marshal, your job is to notice these day to day, correct what you safely can, and escalate the rest to the responsible person straight away.